The landscape of today’s psychological research and therapeutic practice has recently seen the concept and practice of mindfulness surge in popularity. It is no secret that this idea of mindfulness has its roots in Asian practices of spirituality, as Western practitioners integrated their own experiences of Buddhist mindfulness into their understandings of psychology. However, this has not gone on without concern. As Monteiro et al. (2015) point out, parts of the Buddhist community grew concerned about two main aspects of this phenomenon: First, the accuracy and efficacy of the teachings from the non-secular perspective; and secondly, the practice of mindfulness without the simultaneous cultivation of wisdom (prajñā) and morality (sīla)(Monteiro et al., 2015; Purser, 2015). Reflecting on these concerns, it is the responsibility of the multiculturally-conscious psychologist to understand the nuances and theory that reside within the teachings of the Buddha. If not carried out with understanding and respect, there is a capacity for harm to be done as practices taken out of an approximately 2,500-year-old tradition without awareness of other needed aspects can lead to easily avoidable issues.
Furthermore, there is a need for a more comprehensive integration of Buddhist theory into modern psychological understanding. If two techniques or approaches are incompatible yet merged nonetheless, it can result in confusion (Monteiro et al., 2015, p. 6). Thus, we must provide consistency between the Buddhist theory and the theories existing in psychology and the broader field of cognitive science. While it is important to consider carrying out this task with respect and understanding, as mentioned earlier, we also ought not to give in to extreme traditionalism. As noted by Purser (2015, pp. 23–24), Buddhism has always evolved in its spread to new cultures and lands, proving that its journey to the West is one more example of the flexibility and potency of the Dharma. Buddhism’s goal should not be to attach more and more people to rules and traditions, but rather to spread the teachings via skillful means (upāya) that allow for all people to benefit from the teachings.
Humanistic Buddhism
This belief is echoed in the sentiments of modern Chinese Buddhism. In response to the decline of Buddhism in China in the early 20th century, Master Tai Xu put forward the response of a “Humanistic Buddhism” (Zheng, 2024). Since then, there have been many masters that have advocated for “Humanistic Buddhism,” with all stating goals of modernizing Buddhism, advocating for the perfection of personality, and adapting to the needs of society (Zheng, 2024). This movement has further been defined in Humanistic Buddhism, advocated by Venerable Master Hsing Yun of the Fo Guang Shan monastic order. He specifically argues that there should be no distinction at all: the teachings of the Buddha were already inherently humanistic (Yun, 2016). With this mission of developing a more humanistic Buddhism we can move forward in the effort of contextualizing and defining the theory of cognition presented in Buddhism, as well as the potential of possible Buddhist psychotherapeutic interventions. By doing this, perhaps a more holistic and complete Buddhist psychotherapy may emerge.
Theory
To understand and argue for the further integration of Buddhist theory into the context of psychology, there are two methods that will be used. Firstly, we must define the theories that are put forward by Buddhism that aim to explain human cognition and affect. Second, these theories ought to be put into a secular context by pointing out parallels with and divergences from modern psychological understandings. Of course, because of the diverse nature of Buddhist practice and tradition, it would not be possible to cover every nuanced theory of cognition. However, keeping in mind the values of Humanistic Buddhism, Chinese traditions seem to have a great potential for matching the teachings to suit the modern psychological needs of society. By no means is this a unique endeavor. As it will be seen, this effort has been taken up by a multitude of academics, therapists, and monastics.
Yogācāra
One of the most influential schools of Buddhism when it comes to the depth of its theory and understandings is that of Yogācāra Buddhism, which can be translated as mind- or consciousness-only Buddhism. As explained by Coleman (2010), although later schools of Yogācāra took positions that there is indeed no material world, modern Western academics believe that the original intent of the Yogācāra theories was to be epistemological and not ontological:
They were not, in other words, questioning the existence of a material world as per the classic idealist position, but were arguing that average unenlightened individuals are only able to perceive it as mediated through the habits, predispositions, and tendencies contained in their minds and the words and images it generates. (p. 96)
We can only perceive the world through our own cognition, which is why Yogācāra asserts that there is only consciousness or mind. Pragmatically, it should not matter whether a material world exists, whether it be philosophically or spiritually. Instead, we should use this understanding to deepen practices of introspection. In many ways, we can see how our internal schemas are formed by influences in our environments, habits, and overall cognitive development. By understanding ourselves and becoming aware of these internal processes, we can adjust our behaviors and any thoughts related to perception accordingly.
Eight Consciousnesses and Structure of the Mind
Under this interpretation of “mind-only,” we can see parallels with our current understanding of human cognition. However, we ought to dive a bit deeper into the ideas within Yogācāra before going any further. Fundamentally, Yogācāra asserts the existence of eight different types of consciousness: the five bodily senses of sight, smell, sound, touch, and taste, as well as mental consciousness, self or manas consciousness, and the “storehouse” or ālaya consciousness (Hammerstrom, 2015, p. 107). While the first five are understandable as sensations, the addition of the last three may be confusing. From the Consciousness-Only perspective, the mind is a sense organ in the same way that the bodily senses are. In other words, the mind senses thoughts in the same way that the skin senses touch. Additionally, the mind is where the raw bodily sensations are integrated.
The most complicated and written about consciousness is that of the “storehouse” or ālaya consciousness. This is where the impressions of all previous experiences are stored. Within the Yogācāra explanation, these are referred to as “karmic seeds.” These seeds are metaphors for potentialities developing into images or impressions of consciousness (Cook, 1999, p. 3). It should be noted that within the Buddhist understanding, these seeds are not only from experiences in an individual’s current life, but also left from all an individual’s previous lifetimes. However, it can be argued that pragmatically it does not matter where these seeds come from but instead what we choose to do with them and how they influence us. When the seeds are expressed, they influence one’s perceptions and behavior, ultimately perpetuating senses of individuality and self (Hammerstrom, 2015, p. 107). In this way, we can see how the “seeds” influence all other consciousnesses. Furthermore, using this influence it can be thought that by transforming the expression of these seeds, a more direct perception can be attained.
Parallels with Cognitive Psychology
After a brief explanation of the theory of cognition within Yogācāra, there are a few similarities that can be pointed out. Firstly, this explanation could work as a theory of cognitive development. For instance, the learning of language is the perception of sound and images (voices and mouth movements) and the following processing within the mind consciousness, leading to the “planting” or “watering” of a seed within the ālaya consciousness. Through further practice, this seed expresses itself within the other consciousnesses. Whether or not the seed of language is already planted could be found in similar disagreements as detailed by McBride et al. (2022) as to whether children come with prewired knowledge of language or if language development is purely done through behavioral reinforcement. Considering both ideas from a Conscious-Only perspective, one might say that the prewired knowledge of language is present from previous lives and stored in the ālaya consciousness, then cultivated through social and behavioral influences. This same mechanism of learning could then be applied to the broader subject of learning in cognitive science.
Additionally, this understanding of perception as being influenced by our own habits, ideas, experiences, etc. matches modern psychological understandings of top-down processing (McBride et al., 2022, p. 55). The addition of underlaying mechanisms and structures as an elaboration on this concept is what differentiates the Yogācārin theory from other theories.
It should be mentioned that this integration of “spiritual” ideas of reincarnation as a factor in cognitive development and learning poses an obstacle for further acceptance into secular practice. However, other transpersonal ideas of the unconscious that are equally central to psychological theory, such as the collective unconscious, have been widely accepted in the field despite similar criticisms. As such, it should not be a factor for disqualification but rather a point for further research and consideration.
The Five Aggregates
Another theory that is widely found in all traditions of Buddhism is that of the Five Aggregates (skandhas). Traditionally, this theory was used to understand and analyze the mind and the concept of an individual self. In the same way one might try and define a car by its individual parts (i.e. four wheels, a steering wheel, an engine, etc.), people may try to define themselves by different parts or aggregates of what they consider their individual nature. Ultimately, there is no individual aspect of ourselves that can be considered as a Self. Instead, the perceived Self is nothing but the collective experience of all Five Aggregates. In order, they are as seen in Table 1 (K. C. Lee, 2023, p. 28):
Table 1
| Aggregates | Description | Application |
| Form (Rūpa) | Physical body made up of the four elements and consisting of the six faculties: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. | A healthy eye capable of seeing is lead by eye-consciousness to contact an external visual object. |
| Feeling Tone (Vedanā) | A pleasant feeling, unpleasant feeling, or neutral feeling arising from contact with form. | A pleasant visual feeling arising from sense contact. |
| Perception (Saññā) | Based on past experiences, the mind interprets an object as a concept. | From past experiences, the visual object’s features and characteristics give rise to the perception of a “tree.” |
| Volition (Saṅkhāra) | A motivational force that leads the mind in a certain direction and which fabricates and further constructs perceptions related to the notion of a self. | The notion of Self identifies with and fabricates further on the “tree” and thinks of it as a “beautiful and peaceful tree.” |
| Consciousness (Viññāṇa) | Bare attention that cognizes mental experiences. | Consciousness cognizes the other aggregates and it can notice the mental experience of “I am appreciating my beautiful and peaceful tree in my garden.” |
As we can see in Table 1 (K. C. Lee, 2023, p. 28), the inclusion of the mind as a sense faculty that senses thoughts remains the same as in the Yogācārin theory. This is a commonality between all Buddhist conceptualizations of psychology. It should also be noted that perception is also often translated as cognition. Seeing that cognition is a direct part of the Five Aggregates also indicates that this is not only a theory around the construction of a self, but also a theory on how cognition arises from data input from sense organs.
Parallels with Cognitive Psychology
There are plenty of points that the Five Aggregates do not explicitly address. This is due to its purpose of noting the construction of the Self and any related mental phenomena, all of which cause attachment and suffering. As a result, it serves more as a theoretical model or structure of the formation of the Self and cognition, not as a commentary about cognition in isolation. This allows for current scientific discovery and theory to coexist alongside Buddhist teachings.
Otherwise, the teaching of the Five Aggregates again mirrors the parallels found with the Consciousness-Only teachings. However, where the teachings of Yogācāra emphasize top-down processing, the teaching of the Five Aggregates emphasizes the concept of bottom-up processing. As defined by McBride et al. (2022), “Using bottom-up processing, perception starts with detecting the most basic units or features of a stimulus and adds the parts together to understand and identify a coherent whole object” (p. 53). This teaching bears similarity to this concept, but is distinguished by its steps preceding perception. Instead, the senses receive external data first, then followed by the feeling tone of whether it is pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant. It is only after these two steps that we perceive whatever was sensed as an individual thing.
As an example, if your shirt caught on fire, we would first sense the heat through our skin, then recognize the sensation as unpleasant or dangerous before we perceive it as being “on fire.” This would also mirror some of the current theories on the somatic aspects of PTSD and emotions (Greenberg, 2017; Van der Kolk, 2014, 2020). Before someone perceives themselves as having a specific emotion, they have somatic experiences and feelings of whether that experience is pleasurable, neutral, or unpleasurable. As such, the sudden perception of those somatic experiences and the subsequent steps of volition and consciousness happen in an instant. This augmentation of the current psychological understanding of perception and consciousness provides for a rich foundation on which a more holistic practice of mindfulness and somatic awareness can be built upon.
Psychotherapy
With all of these theoretical foundations put in place, it is now possible to explore the application of those principles pragmatically. If we cannot assist with any individual or social improvement in the lives of others, then all of this is useless. Currently, there are a plethora of Buddhist-informed psychotherapies, but many of them seem to stop at mindfulness, due to its potential for secular use outside of its Buddhist context. As mentioned earlier, there are plenty of criticisms that have been levied by the international Buddhist community regarding the isolated practice of mindfulness and meditative concentration (samādhi) without the practices of morality (sīla) and cultivation of wisdom (prajñā) (K. C. Lee, 2023, p. 16). Stepping back, we can see that the fundamental criticism is that meditative concentration and mindfulness are practiced in isolation. This is because of the foundational role and importance of the Threefold Trainings of mindfulness, morality, and wisdom. Traditionally, all three of these practices are to be undertaken to properly practice the Buddhist path (Yun, 2010). Additionally, much like many other Buddhist concepts, these trainings are interconnected and interdependent on one another. If one training is done without the others, there are potential reductions in effectiveness and even risks of creating confusion and cognitive dissonance. As such, it is important to holistically incorporate the Threefold Trainings into the conceptualization of Buddhist psychotherapy.
The Threefold Trainings as Psychotherapy
While there is plenty of evidence for the efficacy of meditation and mindfulness, there is admittedly less so for the practice of morality and the cultivation of wisdom. It is also much harder to understand them within the context of Western psychology. Nonetheless, it is a worthwhile endeavor to begin the process with the intent of further work to better understand this approach.
Morality (Sīla)
Within the Buddhist context, the practice of sīla refers to the observance of precepts, vows, and overall Right Action. The most important of these include the Five Precepts, a group of five vows that Buddhists undertake in order to prevent unwholesome conduct. As K. C. Lee (2023) puts it: “From a Buddhist perspective, promoting an ethical life will contribute to a conducive environment resulting in less suffering” (p. 128). In addition to living a life with less attachment and suffering, practicing sīla is integral to the practice of samādhi and the cultivation of prajñā. For instance, if one is only thinking about the regrets they had in the day, it may be harder to meditate and cultivate inner wisdom. From the perspective of Yogācāra, having proper conduct as well as carrying out wholesome actions cultivates the proper seeds for wholesome personality traits. In this sense, having proper conduct can lead to enlightenment as it provides the necessary conditions for the other two trainings.
Additionally, the subject of Buddhist repentance ought to be considered as an aspect of sīla. Originally, repentance in Mahayana Buddhism served as a way for monastics to atone for transgressions by means of purification and rehabilitation and was later adapted for the needs of laypeople to do the same for transgressions of a much more minor severity (Greene, 2012, p. 286). Furthermore, as K. C. Lee et al. (2017) discuss, there are many factors of repentance that can be beneficial for individuals from a mental health perspective. It can offer self-forgiveness in situations where forgiveness cannot be sought, as well as the promotion of self-responsibility and governance. In other words:
From a psychological perspective, repentance appears to help individuals alleviate such feelings through the expression of their guilt, regret or shame, commitment to take responsibilities for their actions, increased self-awareness of their intrapsychic, cultivation of self-forgiveness, and instilled hope for future positive actions. (K. C. Lee et al., 2017, p. 217).
While there can be criticism against repentance regarding the perpetuation of cultural and religious shame and guilt, there is also the benefit of offering this practice to those that may regret past conduct so that they may move on in their practice. Outside of a ritual context, there is an opportunity for the therapist to acknowledge a client’s shame via the means of the therapeutic relationship and unconditional positive regard to provide compassion and understanding so that they might come to forgive themselves outside of a religious context.
Meditative Concentration (Samādhi)
As mentioned before, there are countless studies and even whole academic journals that are dedicated to the practice of mindfulness and meditation within the psychotherapeutic context. Nonetheless, specific findings ought to be highlighted to distinguish their particular excellence in pursuing a more respectful and holistic approach.
Current research looking into existing and established meditation practices of meditation on the Four Immeasurables of loving-kindness, compassion, appreciative joy, and equanimity has found efficacy in the treatment of depressive symptoms but has seen challenges regarding their rigor and reciprocity (Lv et al., 2020). Additionally, meditative imaging techniques based on loving-kindness and compassion have not met the requirements for empirical scientific validation. There is promising evidence however that experienced practitioners of compassion meditation show a difference in circuitries linked to empathy (Lutz, Brefczynski-Lewis, et al., 2008). Furthermore, studies on open-monitoring meditation suggest links to reductions in getting “stuck” on distracting stimuli as well as improvements in emotional flexibility (Lutz, Slagter, et al., 2008). Altogether, it can be said for the covered studies that meditation has been found to have a correlational effect with improvements in attention, empathy, and emotional flexibility. It should be said, of course, that this topic is so vast that there have already been efforts to go back and distinguish specific traditions that have been previously categorized together in an effort to be more accurate (Travis & Shear, 2010). Nonetheless, meditation and mindfulness have shown great promise.
Without samādhi, it would be impossible to achieve enlightenment. Even the most untalented monks have found enlightenment within their traditions using meditative concentration. It is with mindfulness that we can notice the arising of desires that go against our goals and inhibit the practice of sīla. In a recent study by Sevinc & Lazar (2019), it has been proposed that mindfulness trainings could influence the processing of morally relevant stimuli, as well as the perception of an individual’s moral identity over time. In addition to the practice of morality, it is with samādhi that true wisdom based on personal understanding and contemplation of individual experience is attained within the Buddhist framework, further establishing the interconnectedness of the Threefold Trainings and the importance of the humanistic approach.
Wisdom (Prajñā)
The final aspect of the Threefold Trainings for the consideration of psychotherapy is the cultivation of prajñā. While it is difficult to place this into a secular practice of psychotherapy, there have been recent developments of specific interventions that can be said to be an active practice that cultivates the prajñā of the client off of the meditation cushion. One such intervention is that of the note-know-choose model outlined by K. C. Lee (2023). In this model, the client uses mindfulness techniques to note the factors that contribute to a subjective feeling of suffering with a following psychoeducation revolving around theories of Buddhist psychology that help them discover the root of their suffering. It is from there that the client can understand various factors in their behavioral decisions that may lead to negative thoughts, feelings, and or behaviors (K. C. Lee, 2023, p. 151). This lends further credence to the idea of karmic seeds within Yogācāra, as the mindful understanding of our habits and behaviors leads to the cultivation of wholesome seeds that later express themselves as wholesome actions or behaviors.
Other choice-based interventions developed by K. C. Lee (2020, 2023) such as mind moment analysis (MMA) reinforce this idea by assisting the client in exploring how their mental activities may exacerbate their suffering by means of (a) Mind education, or psychoeducation for the client regarding Buddhist theories of mind, (b) identifying a critically disturbing incident, (c) locating sensory contacts, (d) expanding awareness of bodily sensations and feelings, (e) noting cognitions, (f) knowing conceptual proliferations, (g) identifying choice points, (h) check-in with realistic conditions, and (i) skillful decision making (K. C. Lee, 2023, pp. 152–153). Due to the nature of prajñā being understood through personal understanding and experience of the Dharma, or ultimate truth, both the note-know-choose and MMA intervention models show promise in helping clients cultivate an individual and personal wisdom based on their lived experience.
Conclusion
In keeping with the values and mission of both humanistic psychology and Humanistic Buddhism, the teachings of the Buddha must both be respected as well as used to benefit individuals and society. By understanding the theories of cognition and mind within Buddhism via the teachings of the Yogācāra school and the core teaching of the Five Aggregates, we can understand the underlaying theoretical assertions that lay at the foundation of the mindfulness and meditative interventions that have received criticism from the global Buddhist community for being too removed from the tradition of teachings and from the specific context of the Threefold Trainings. By adding back those aspects, it is possible to achieve both a modernized and psychologically pragmatic Buddhist understanding of cognition and theory of psychotherapy. Additionally, by outlining each of the Threefold Trainings of morality (sīla), meditative concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā), within the understanding of modern psychology, a holistic and modernized take on the Buddha’s path towards liberation has been proposed to help address the growing need for mental health resources. This pragmatic approach is in line with the Chinese Mahayana wave of humanistic Buddhism, as well as the specific movement headed by Fo Guang Shan.
Once again, the goal of psychology and of Buddhism ought to be to help all people with their suffering, and to take the necessary steps of social action and modernization to meet the need where it is. By asserting the individual path of each person and the importance of their own journey, this proposed Humanistic-Buddhist psychotherapy uses the application of specific interventions that allow the client to discover their own path via their own personal understandings of their unique experiences.
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