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Mindfulness and meditation have perhaps seen no era before in which they have been so popular. There are apps, classes, exercises, company retreats, and many other adjacent phenomena that can now be seen across Western societies that advocate for these topics. Beginning with the work of Kabat-Zinn (2013), mindfulness was first introduced in the 1980s as a therapeutic technique for stress, pain, and the psychological complications of illness. Since then, mindfulness has been integrated into models of psychotherapy such as dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) (Kostanski & Hassed, 2008, pp. 17–18). However, within the foundations of these advancements, there is a tie that is known of but not fully acknowledged by the general public, victim to the increasing secularization of the world and subject to yet more cases of appropriation. Even when acknowledged, these connections are brief and or diverted to other focuses or scientific areas of study (Islam et al., 2022, p. 5). The source of these ideas was Buddhism, a religion that found relatively new interest from the West but had a long history of its own theories of psychology and methods of self-cultivation and healing.

Introduction

Buddhism is a religion founded around the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, also referred to as Sakyamuni or “sage of the Sakyas.” According to Buddhist belief, after attaining enlightenment Siddhartha became known as the Buddha, which can be translated as “The Enlightened/Awakened One.” After his enlightenment, he taught for 45 years until his death when he was said to have attained nirvana, an escape from the cycle of rebirth (Rāhula, 1974, pp. xv–xvi). After his death, the monastic order that had formed around him carried on his teachings, eventually creating canons, and establishing their own traditions and systems of thought (de Bary, 1972, p. 7). While there are certainly differences between these traditions, they all share a common foundation that was taught by the Buddha. Part of the philosophy that was both taught by the Buddha and by the Buddhist traditions that followed him included a theory of what would be deemed psychology in modern terms.

            With these pieces of context in mind, there should be a way to reconcile the two paths. Mindfulness has provided many benefits but has also become watered down and victim to vague definitions and practices by companies and organizations that, despite meaning well, end up confusing the original technique (Islam et al., 2022). Buddhism has had a significant influence on modern psychology, shaping its concepts, practices, and therapies. Therefore, by acknowledging this and integrating the concepts put forward by Buddhist psychology into modern psychological practice without appropriation, more benefits can be given to clients. We must go back to the roots of the techniques and view them within the context they were meant to be part of. Buddhist psychology offers a holistic viewpoint that can be used by clinicians of any religion or faith with clients of equally diverse origins. To prove this point, Buddhist psychology must be defined. Following this, the influences that can be found from these ideas must be pointed out and contrasted with the original ones. Finally, using the information gained from comparing and contrasting Buddhist and modern psychology, we will be able to see how we can use Buddhist psychological theories and practices to benefit clients in conjunction with modern traditions.

Buddhist Psychology

Buddhist psychology as a concept within Western academia only emerged in the last 100 years, first used by Davids (1914) in her work titled Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of the Mind in Pali literature. However, in Asia, the term had been used by Japanese academic and scholar Inoue Enryō in his published Lectures on Buddhist Psychology according to Poon (2020, pp. 393–394). After the idea of Buddhist psychology was introduced to the West, which can be called the “Introduction Phase” the next phase of development was for a stage of communication, or “Communicating Phase,” wherein Western academics compared Buddhist psychology with the familiar Western models of psychology (Poon, 2020, p. 399). In this stage, it was common for Freudian psychoanalysis to be compared and contrasted with Buddhist theories. This is because during the 1960s to 1970s, psychoanalysis was the foremost practiced theory in the West (Poon, 2020, pp. 397–398). The last and current stage of the development of Buddhist psychology in the West is “Verification & Extraction.” This is a stage that is marked by an extraction and testing of applied theories from Buddhist scriptures as psychotherapeutic techniques to determine their effectiveness (Poon, 2020, p. 399). While this is a stage that adds benefit to the propagation of Buddhist ideas that can help people in psychotherapy, this stage and the process associated with it lends itself to a decontextualization of the concepts being tested. Each concept in Buddhist psychology is linked to a larger practice that loses some meaning every time it is taken out of the theoretical and practical systems they originate from.

Theoretical Assumptions

            Just as every other psychological theory has its own set of theoretical assumptions, Buddhist psychology does too. In particular, Buddhist psychology finds its foundations within the teachings of the Buddha. These teachings all center around concepts of co-arising, dukkha (suffering), and non-self (Lee, 2023, p. 26). In Mahayana Buddhism, these three concepts are referred to as the “Three Dharma Seals.” If all these three concepts are not present in a supposed teaching of the Buddha, it is not seen as legitimate (Nhất Hạnh, 2015, pp. 131–145; Yun, 2016, p. 86). This can reasonably be transposed into the context of a Buddhist psychological model; if an intervention or theory does not include the integration of these three concepts, then it cannot be said to be a part of Buddhist psychology.

Co-Arising. This term can be seen as a core assumption within Buddhism, which is often additionally translated as interdependence. As best explained in the Dasabalasutta (Bodhi, 2000, SN 12.21): “Thus when this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases.” By describing the relationships between these supposedly opposite and separate states, we come to see that all conditions and forms are interdependent. All experiences and thoughts rely on other experiences and thoughts. All phenomena are reliant on conditions and causes because all things are co-arising and interdependent. As Lee explains (2023, p. 26), if we are to apply this concept to psychology, depression from this lens would be a result of various interdependent phenomena attached to the mental label of depression. The somatic experiences in addition to shame, negative views of self, inner voices, and resistance to the label and experience of depression all are part of a chain of causes that result in depression being constructed. To break free from this, the chain of causes and conditions must be broken.

Non-Self. Also known by its Sanskrit counterpart, anatta, non-self is a concept that sits somewhat juxtaposed to Western psychology. Due to it being such a foreign idea to many in the West, it is perhaps the most often misunderstood. Anatta does not mean that there is no self but rather describes an inclination that humans have in perceiving a reality of neutral phenomena as being their permanent and authentic identity (Lee, 2023, pp. 26–27). This attachment that forms around the concept of self comes from what is known as the Five Aggregates. As defined in Chuang (2012), the Five Aggregates are as follows:

1. Form – Anything that takes up space or can be perceived through our senses.
2. Feeling – Sensations that are a result of our minds grasping external phenomena.
3. Perception – The formation of mental concepts.
4. Mental Formation – Fabrications that come from mental deliberation and judgment.
5. Consciousness – Awareness, or what can process and distinguish between mental states. (pp. 8-9)

As mentioned, these Five Aggregates are what cause people to believe that there is some sort of permanent and real self. However, our senses are reliant on the existence of everything else. We are not the Five Aggregates, but rather the thing that is experiencing the ever-changing and unfolding present moment. As said by the Buddha in the Anattalakkhaṇasutta (Bodhi, 2005):

Any kind of feeling whatsoever … Any kind of perception whatsoever … Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever … Any kind of consciousness whatsoever, whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all consciousness should be seen as it is with correct wisdom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self. (SN 22:59; III 66-68)

Therefore, all the Five Aggregates, due to their changing nature and ability to cause suffering, cannot be said to be the self.

Suffering. While this concept sounds dark and pessimistic, the reality is that many Buddhists have a different understanding of what it is to suffer in comparison to the general understanding. Suffering, in Buddhism, is merely a fact of life. Life is inherently dissatisfactory. We operate based on expectations and ideas that when confronted with reality, cause us to suffer. The Five Aggregates cause us to become attached to a sense of self, which then also causes us to suffer due to clinging onto a sense of what is right, wrong, good, bad, etc. (Lee, 2023, pp. 30–31). However, suffering is also what drives us. Hardships and challenges in life allow us to grow and become more resilient. By being able to suffer, we are given opportunities to overcome that suffering and become more (Yun, 2016, pp. 90–97). Fearing suffering only causes us to suffer more and become more vulnerable to the reality of life. Instead taking a path that helps us become more compassionate, equanimous, and wise allows us to interact with suffering in a more resilient way.

Practices

The practices that allow us to overcome suffering are of great importance. By taking into consideration the concepts of co-arising, non-self, and suffering, several methods were put forward by the Buddha and by his followers throughout history. Some of these practices, which have now become synonymous with Buddhism and mental health, are mindfulness and meditation.

Meditation. In Buddhism, the goal of meditation is to develop samadhi, or meditative concentration. As such, there are many different types of meditation. Overall, they all serve the same purpose: The cultivation of meditative concentration so that prajñā, translated as insight or wisdom, may be attained. The most widely practiced meditation within Buddhism is meditation which is focused on the breath (Rāhula, 1974, p. 48). Whether it is counting the length of exhalations and inhalations, or counting breaths in sets of ten, the general goal is to develop an awareness of the body while letting thoughts naturally pass without grasping at them.

Mindfulness. As exemplified in the Satipatthana Sutta (Thera, 1994, MN 10), mindfulness is developed through the intentional practice of being aware of actions both in and outside of the practice of meditation. In many ways, meditation and mindfulness are intertwined. While mindfulness is not a substitute for sitting meditation, activities done with mindfulness are meditative and will help in the development of concentration and awareness. By being able to detach from the Five Aggregates and experience the present moment, we can lessen our suffering (Nhất Hạnh, 2015). Some practices may include mindful walking, wherein practitioners walk with intention and with their attention focused on the sensations of walking.

Modern Psychology

The ideas that have been seen to adopt Buddhist ideas are seen in the modern models of DBT, ACT, and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) (Kostanski & Hassed, 2008). However, each method should be briefly explored and connected with Buddhist psychological concepts so that its influence may be understood.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

Being the first model to be widely accepted, this model used the mindfulness practices that were mentioned previously to address stress and build an awareness of the somatic experiences of it. While the underlying concepts that define Buddhist psychology may not be obvious in MBSR’s foundations, it is known that the goals of building awareness, nonjudgement, compassion, and attention associated with Buddhist mindfulness were of great influence in building Kabat-Zinn’s (1984, as cited in Lee, 2023) MBSR (Lee, 2023, p. 14).

Dialectical Behavioral Therapy

Developed to address suicidal behaviors in women with borderline personality disorder, DBT uses mindfulness for emotional regulation (Lee, 2023, p. 15). Additionally, by using a dialectical philosophy, clients are empowered to accept the present experience of the moment as well as becoming motivated to change themselves for the better in the way they believe is best (Kang & Whittingham, 2010). DBT was strongly influenced by its founder’s practice of Zen Buddhism and relies on mindfulness teachings in the Japanese tradition (Kang & Whittingham, 2010; Kostanski & Hassed, 2008).

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

In ACT, the main idea is that suffering is caused by “living in the head” rather than living their life (Kostanski & Hassed, 2008, p. 163). Right away, this is similar to the concept of suffering that can be found in the core concepts of Buddhist psychology, particularly that of dukkha. By promoting mindfulness and nonjudgment, both key concepts in meditation and mindfulness practices, the client can escape the “verbal processes” that limit them to their minds. Another key component is the advocation to focus on behaviors that have positive outcomes (Kostanski & Hassed, 2008, p. 18). In totality, ACT seems to be like Buddhist psychology but yet communicates the ideas in a way that is far removed from Buddhist concepts and closer to Western behaviorism and analytical psychology.

Integrated Approach

The reality is that while arguing whether one model of psychology is better than the other can be helpful for understanding the minutiae of their concepts, a multicultural approach is needed so that therapists may help the greatest number of clients with the greatest amount of knowledge and experience. As such, an integrated approach using both Buddhist and modern Western psychology ought to be used. One counseling intervention model based on Buddhist teachings seems to have promise.

The “note, know, choose” model of intervention proposed by Lee (2023, pp. 38–51) focuses on noting the body’s experiences, then knowing or deconstructing and discerning those experiences. In the final step of the cycle, the client works on focusing on making future choices that may help the client break chains of causation that lead to their suffering, as mentioned earlier. While this is a great technique that provides flexibility, it potentially works best as a tool in the metaphorical toolbox for the therapist for those who may respond well to it. Beyond it, using techniques from DBT, ACT or MBSR may help clients in a way that suits their needs and strengths in the therapeutic process. Additionally, implementing meditation within the aforementioned modern models of psychology may help the client develop a more intentional practice. The more a client is intentional about practicing the skills necessary for improving their situations, the more likely they will improve.

Conclusion

The intersection of Buddhist psychology with modern psychology offers a unique and valuable perspective on human well-being. The popularity of mindfulness and meditation in contemporary society demonstrates the relevance and effectiveness of these ancient practices. However, it is essential to recognize the roots of these techniques in Buddhism and the profound influence that Buddhist psychology has had on the development of modern psychological models.

Buddhist psychology is deeply rooted in the teachings of the Buddha and emphasizes core concepts such as co-arising, non-self, and suffering. These concepts provide a framework for understanding the human mind and the sources of psychological distress. Practices like meditation and mindfulness, derived from Buddhist traditions, have been integrated into modern psychological therapies, including mindfulness-based stress reduction, dialectical behavioral therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy.

Despite the well-meaning intentions of these integrations, there is a risk of decontextualizing these practices and losing some of their original meaning. To truly benefit from Buddhist psychology in the context of modern psychology, it is crucial to acknowledge the broader philosophical and spiritual underpinnings of these concepts. An integrated approach that combines elements of both Buddhist and modern Western psychology offers a more comprehensive toolkit for therapists to help clients address their unique needs and challenges.

By recognizing and respecting the origins of mindfulness and meditation in Buddhist psychology, mental health professionals can provide more effective and holistic care to their clients. The principles of co-arising, non-self, and suffering, along with practices like meditation and mindfulness, offer valuable insights into the human experience. As we move forward in the field of psychology with more humanistic intentions, embracing these influences can lead to more compassionate, resilient, and mindful approaches to mental health and personal growth.

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